Bukit Bendera - The Hill With Many Names

 

Picture 1: 1874 Admiralty Map of Penang, based on surveys conducted in 1832, 1856 & 1867. 
Source: Georaphicus Rare & Antique Maps.

Penang Hill is also known as Bukit Bendera, literally "Flag Hill" in Malay.  The Malay name actually refers to Flagstaff Hill, the most developed peak in Penang Hill. In terms of toponymy, Flagstaff Hill was named in reference to the flagstaff outside the residence of the Governor.  The said residence was built by Francis Light in 1789, wherein surveys conducted as early as 1832 shows that the hill was known as Bell Retiro (Picture 1).  

From the archives, nautical instruments were placed at Bell Retiro.  Marine chronometers sold by J.S Leisk & Co to shipowners in Penang around 1848 had Greenwich Meantime calibrated and synchronized with reference to the coordinates of the hill's flagstaff. Archives also show that other known names of the hill includes Government Hill, Signal Hill, as well as Great Hill. 

Based on an 1866 photograph by Émile Gsell (1836-1879), we can see that the structure adjacent to the Governor's residence was not any ordinary flagstaff (Picture 2). Combined with an observation deck and a shutter tower to its left, this maritime flagstaff forms a visual signalling system which is also known as optical telegraph. Gsell was hired by the Commission d'exploration du Mékong (Mekong Exploration Commission) directed by Ernest Doudart de Lagrée (1823-1868), to photograph the ruins of Angkor. Gsell accompanied the expedition to Cambodia and Siam from June to October 1866, wherein several photographs were taken during their stopover in Penang. Following the 1866 expedition, Gsell established himself as a commercial photographer, becoming the first professional photographer to do so in Saigon.

Picture 2: Photograph by Émile Gsell (1836-1879) titled "Habitation du Gouvernaur de Poulo Pinang" i.e. House of the Governor of Pulau Pinang c. 1866 prior to its 1870 renovation. 
Source: Leiden University Library, Amsterdam.

Before the invention of wireless telegraphy, signalling using flags and shutters from signal stations were used to transmit messages between distant points.  Similar maritime flagstaff was installed by the British in Malacca atop St. Paul's Hill (St. Pauli Berg / Bukit Melaka) (Pictures 3 & 4).  In fact St. Paul's Hill was temporarily known as Bukit Bendera around early 19th century.

Picture 3: 
'View of the Church of the Visitation of Our Lady on the Summit of St. Paul's Hill" by Begbie, P. J. c. 1834
Source: The Malayan Peninsula, Embracing its History, Manners and Customs of the Inhabitants, Politics, Natural History &c. From its Earliest Records.' by Begbie, P. J., 1834.

Picture 4: Painting of St. Paul's Hill by Barthélémy Lauvergne c. 1837

Based on a 1764 painting of Malacca by Jan Keldermans, the Dutch had their maritime flagstaff constructed nearer to the coastal bastions (Picture 5).

Picture 5: "Aanzicht Malakka" (View of Malacca) by Jan Keldermans, 1764, which shows that Dutch Malacca had its maritime flagstaff installed near one of the bastions.
Source: Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

The Anglo-Dutch naval wars of the 17th century provided considerable impetus on both sides for more elaborate signals culminating in the Royal Navy's Permanent Fighting Instructions created by the then-Duke of York (subsequently James II). In 1799, Sir Home Riggs Popham published his first list of words and sentences which could be referenced by a number (or "code"); three subsequent editions added letter flags, with the 1801 edition numbering 2994 codes. Sir Home Riggs Popham was also responsible for the earliest map of Penang town (Picture 6).

Picture 6: The 1799 Map of Penang Showing the Malay Town on the South of the Town Center by Sir Home Riggs Popham. Source: Wikipedia.

The first general system of signaling for merchant vessels was Captain Frederick Marryat's "A Code of Signals for the Merchant Service" published in 1817. (Picture 7).

Picture 7: Captain Frederick Marryat's Signal Flag Code
Source: Modelshipworld.com

Around the same time, the local Malays is believed to have practiced similar flag signalling system.  For example, Selangor under Sultan Ibrahim Shah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Salehuddin Shah (r. 1778-1826) inherited a flag signalling system from the Johor-Riau kingdom which was influenced by the banners of the Ottoman Empire. Sultan Ibrahim Shah, a Buginese prince, joined forces with his uncle, Raja Haji Fisabilillah ibni Daeng Chelak (1727–1784), in the Bugis attack of Dutch Malacca in 1784 and helped Perak defeat Siamese invasion. The Dutch retaliated and captured the fortress near Malawati Hill during the 1784 Battle of Selangor wherein several signal flags were confiscated at the hill fort (Kota Malawati).  Charts containing the illustration of these flags were drawn by Engel Hoogerheyden which is now kept at the Maritime Museum of Amsterdam (Pictures 8 & 9).  In Malay, "Malawati" or "Melawati" means reconnaissance tower located on a high ground.  As such it is believed that the hill fort got its name from the reconnaissance and signal tower constructed within its compound.  

Picture 8: Flag Chart of Engel Hoogerheyden, showing the flags captured at the Battle of Selangor, 1784.

Source: Maritime Museum Amsterdam.

Picture 9: Two banners belonging to the Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Selangor (Sultan Ibrahim Shah) and the Yang di-Pertuan Muda of Johor-Riau (Raja Haji Fisabillilah) captured at the Battle of Selangor, 1784.
Source: Maritime Museum Amsterdam. 

As to shutter towers, such machines were essentially vertical wooden frames with shutters within them. The shutter system in general was designed by Reverend Lord George Murray around 1796 and named 'Murray Shutter'. To make a signal, the shutters were opened and closed in order to spell out different letters. The first system of Murray Shutters were constructed around March 1796 and known as the Portsmouth Shutter Telegraph line which enabled communication between the Admiralty building in London and Portsmouth (See Picture 10).

Picture 10: View of the Telegraph erected on the Admiralty Office, Charing Cross in 1796.
Source: National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.

The message was passed through several Signal Stations including Putney, Chessington, Haslemere, Bedhampton, and ended next to the King’s Bastion, Portsmouth (Picture 11). Soldiers at the stations would watch through telescopes and take down the message, then pass it on by pulling ropes attached to the back of the shutters to spell it out. This line could send important messages from the Royal Naval base in Portsmouth to London in 7.5 minutes, far quicker than any other method of communication at the time.  Soon after it was built, another row was added to make it a 9-shutter system, and just when all the operators were getting used to the new possible coding permutations, then came an additional single shutter on top. Experiments were also made with lanterns for night use of the shutters, but were conspicuously unsuccessful. 

Picture 11: Model of Murray Shutter at Portsmouth, Southsea Common.
Source: National Museum of the Royal Navy

In the case of Bukit Bendera of Penang, the flagstaff and shutter tower were utilized to relay strategic military communication from Bukit Bendera to Fort Cornwallis, which had a corresponding signaling system (Picture 12). 

Picture 12: Maritime Flagstaff and sideview of the Murray Shutter at Fort Cornwallis, c. 1860s.
Source: Gutenberg.org

Nevertheless, unlike the European version, the Murray Shutters of Penang were different as it utilized 12 shutters. As Murray Shutters were generally scrapped after the Napoleonic wars (1803-1815), it is believed that the 1866 photograph by Gsell (Picture 2) shows that such system was subjected to further improvement in Penang. With more shutters, the Penang version would have been able to convey a more complex combination of codes and signals. As the shutter operators were referred to as "bell ringers" (as they had to "pull together" the shutters to make code), it is possible that the name "Bell Retiro" originated from the function of the hill, i.e. as accommodation for the bell ringers. This is so as the British had to man their signal station throughout the year. The current name of Bel Retiro (Beautiful/Fair Retreat) could be a corruption of its original name Bell Retiro.

Therefore, it may be argued that Bukit Bendera has long been used for observation and communication purposes. Perhaps longer than its role as a retreat for the British colonists. Here, signalmen a.k.a. 'bell ringers' surveyed the ocean for ships headed into Penang harbour, years before the advent of wireless and ship-to-shore radio. From the signal station atop the hill, flags and shutters conveyed information on approaching vessels to military and mercantile interests in Penang. Merchants then had plenty of time to prepare their docks for incoming vessels. It was equally useful in wartime for observing enemy movements and attacks. Signals could be issued to give instructions as to the best defence formation for the navy to counter enemy ships.  

With the end of the First World War in November 1918, the British discontinued the use of the signal station at Bukit Bendera. This ended a service which existed for almost a century. It was replaced with the wireless installation at Penaga and the station at Muka Head. As it is with the toponym of Bukit Malawati of Kuala Selangor, and Bukit Bendera of Malacca, the existence of a signal station on its grounds became the origin of the many names of Bukit Bendera of Penang.

Sources:

1. Aiken, R.S. (1987). Early Penang Hill Station, Geographical Review, Vol. 77, No. 4 (Oct., 1987), pp. 421-439 (19 pages).

2. Leiden University Library, Amsterdam.

3. Malawati, Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka http://prpm.dbp.gov.my/cari1?keyword=melawati

4. Maritime Flag Signalling, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_flag_signalling

5. McNair, J.F.A. & Bayliss, W. D. (2008). Prisoners Their Own Warders. E-book at

https://www.gutenberg.org/files/26974/26974-h/26974-h.htm

6. Mekong Expedition 1866-1868 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mekong_expedition_of_1866%E2%80%931868

7. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.

8. National Museum of the Royal Navy.

9. Optical Telegraph, Wikipedia, https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Optical_telegraph

Misteri Keris di Kuil Purba India

Gambar 1: Lukisan tahun 1733 bertajuk "Dit beeld, Tempel en Tooren, Hoog zo op het veld op Nagapatnam op de kust op Coromandel". (Patung, Kuil & Menara di sebuah padang di Nagapattinam, di pesisir pantai Coromandel). Sumber: Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

Terdapat sebuah lukisan Belanda tahun 1733 yang menggambarkan runtuhan lama sebuah kuil Buddha yang terletak di Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu, India (Gambar 1). Pengkaji Belanda menyatakan bahawa lukisan tersebut adalah imej kuil Chudamani Vihara yang kemudiannya telah dimusnahkan mubaligh Jesuits sekitar tahun 1867 (Gambar 2).  

Gambar 2: Lakaran menara kuil Chudamani Vihara yang hanya tinggal 3 tingkat sekitar tahun 1846, 21 tahun sebelum ianya dirobohkan mubaligh Jesuits.

Apa yang menarik, sekiranya diteliti bahagian kiri lukisan kuil tahun 1733 tersebut, terdapat sebilah keris yang digenggam tangan kiri patung tersebut (Gambar 3). Keris tersebut kononnya digunakan untuk memenggal kepala dua orang musuh.  Siapakah identiti disebalik patung tersebut? Apakah kaitan kuil purba ini dengan keris? Mungkinkah ia dibina pedagang dari Nusantara?

Gambar 3: Kewujudan sebilah keris digenggaman tangan patung di kuil Chudamani Vihara.

Saya berpendapat prasasti diRaja Rajendra Chola I atau dikenali sebagai 'Leiden Plates' yang kini disimpan di Belanda mungkin dapat memberikan jawapan terhadap persoalan tersebut. (Gambar 4 & 5). 

Gambar 4: Prasasti diRaja Rajendra Chola I atau dikenali sebagai Leiden Plates. Sumber: Leiden University Library, Amsterdam.

Gambar 5: Dua kepingan plat terakhir Prasasti diraja Rajendra Chola I (Leiden Plates).

Prasasti ini diperbuat dari tembaga dan ianya tahan karat. Kepingan plat tembaga diikat dengan lingkaran gangsa yang mempunyai meterai diRaja (Royal Seal). Plat tembaga-nya terbahagi kepada dua bahagian, satu dalam bahasa Sanskrit, satu dalam bahasa Tamil. Bahagian Sanskrit (5 keping plat) menceritakan salasilah dinasti Chola, dimulai dengan pujian-pujian berunsur ketuhanan. Bahagian Tamil (16 keping plat) pula menceritakan pemerintahan Rajaraja Chola I (r. 985-1012), iaitu ayahanda kepada Rajendra Chola I (r. 1012-1044).

Secara khususnya, prasasti seberat 30 kilogram tersebut mencatatkan bahawa pada tahun 1006, Rajaraja Chola I telah memerintahkan supaya keseluruhan kutipan cukai 26 buah kampung bersempadan daerah Anaimangalam disumbangkan kepada seorang raja Melayu dari Srivijaya bernama Sri Maravijayottunggavarman (r. 1008-c.1025). Ianya diberikan khusus kepada raja Melayu dinasti Sailendra tersebut supaya dapat dibangunkan sebuah kuil Buddha (vihara) di Nagapattinam dan dinamakan sempana nama ayahandanya Sri Chulamanivarman (r. 988–1008). Tujuan utama ianya didirikan adalah sebagai tempat ibadat para pedagang Srivijaya yang umumnya beragama Buddha Mahayana & Vajrayana. Mereka terdiri dari pandai besi dan pedagang "Kadaraththu Irumbu" [Eng: Iron from Kadaram / BM: Besi Kadaram].   Selain dari besi Kadaram, pedagang Srivijaya yang ke Chola juga mengekspot "Kidaravan" [Eng: Teakwood from Kidaram / BM: Kayu jati dari Kidaram] yang digunakan kerajaan Chola untuk membina bangunan dan kapal.  Prasasti tersebut juga menerangkan tentang pra-syarat pemilikan tanah kuil, sistem kebersihan kawasan dan perairan yang perlu dipatuhi, dan juga arahan supaya keluarga dan penganut agama Buddha di kawasan tersebut diterima dan dilindungi oleh penduduk tempatan yang beragama Hindu.

Walaubagaimanapun, hubungan baik Srivijaya dengan kerajaan Chola tidak kekal lama. Pada tahun 1025, Rajendra Chola I telah melancarkan perang ke atas Srivijaya dan menakluk hampir kesemua kota-kota di Semenanjung Tanah Melayu dan Sumatera. (Gambar 6).

Gambar 6: Lukisan Siam yang menggambarkan serangan Chola terhadap Kadaram (Kedah Tua) pada tahun 1025. Sumber: Wikipedia.

Serangan kerajaan Chola ini bagaimanapun tidak membawa kepada kelangsungan politik Chola ke atas wilayah-wilayah Nusantara yang diserang. Ini adalah kerana Srivijaya yang berpusat di Kadaram / Kidaram (Kedah Tua) ketika itu telah mempunyai pemerintah baru bernama Sri Deva. Baginda dilantik pada tahun 1028 bagi menggantikan Sri Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman (r. 1017-1025) yang ditawan semasa serangan terhadap Kedah Tua pada tahun 1025.

Selepas kejatuhan dinasti keluarga Sailendra, persahabatan kerajaan Chola dengan kerajaan Srivijaya di Kedah Tua kembali terjalin. Pada tahun 1091, Kedah Tua telah menghantar perutusan dan memulakan kembali aktiviti perdagangan dengan kerajaan Chola.

Dari kajian yang dijalankan sekitar Nagapattinam dan kawasan kuil Chudamani Vihara, sebanyak 350 buah patung Buddha yang diperbuat dari tembaga telah ditemui. Ianya adalah patung-patung tembaga yang dihasilkan sekitar abad ke-11 hingga ke-16.  Sekitar pertengahan abad ke-19, salah sebuah patung Buddha yang dijumpai di kuil tersebut telah diberikan kepada Gabenor Madras iaitu Lord Napier sebagai hadiah.  Menurut Ramachandran, TN (1954), terdapat lebih dari 80 patung Buddha tembaga dan gangsa dari sekitar kuil Chudamani Vihara yang kini disimpan di Muzium Chennai. Manakala satu lagi patung Buddha yang dijumpai kini berada dalam milikan koleksi John D. Rockefeller di Asia Society Museum, New York (Gambar 7).

Gambar 7: Patung Buddha berukuran 69.2cm yang dijumpai sekitar Nagapattinam (c.1090). Sumber: Koleksi John D. Rockefeller, Asia Society Museum, New York.

Patung Buddha di New York tersebut dikatakan diperbuat pada tahun 1090-an. Tertera pada tapaknya bahawa ianya adalah hadiah daripada tukang-tukang besi dari gabungan 18 negeri. Saya petik terjemahan yang dibuat oleh Professor Vidya Dehejia terhadap catatan pada tapak patung tersebut:-

"Well-being [and] prosperity. The nayakar (Buddha), of all of the eighteen countries, of the metalworkers. The procession image, for the sacred festival of the alvar temple, which was caused to be taken in procession by the respected one (utaiyar) endowed of the four gunas from Cirutavur; [in] the perum-palli (great place of worship or great Vihara) of the metalworkers, [in] the perum-palli of Rajendra Chola."

Pada tahun 1936, sebuah patung Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara gangsa yang dianggar dibuat sekitar kurun ke-8 hingga ke-9 dijumpai di Bidor, Perak. Ianya kini disimpan di Muzium Negara (Gambar 8). Sekitar 2011 terdapat catatan beberapa artifak gangsa iaitu pancalogam tembaga dijumpai di Lembah Bujang, Kedah (Mokhtar et. al, 2011).  Ini menunjukkan kehadiran logam tembaga dan kemahiran pandai besi mencampurkan timah untuk menghasilkan gangsa. 

Gambar 8: Patung Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara gangsa yang dijumpai di Bidor, Perak pada tahun 1936. Sumber: Muzium Negara Malaysia.

Menurut kajian Treloar F.E. & Fabris G.J. (1975), terdapat kaitan antara perusahaan pembuatan besi di Sarawak dengan pembuatan besi di Lembah Merbok, Kedah. Secara khususnya Treloar & Fabris merumuskan bahawa logam dan bahan asing seperti tembaga, perak, raksa, arsenik, korundum, berlian, arang batu, dan turmalin yang dijumpai di Chandi Bukit Batu Pahat, Kedah adalah datangnya dari Bau, Sarawak.

 

 

Pada tahun 2015, Pusat Penyelidikan Arkeologi Global (PPAG) Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) yang diketuai Professor Datuk Dr Mokhtar Saidin mengenalpasti kewujudan 2 juta 'tuyere' (peniup angin), 12 tapak peleburan, dan antara 5 hingga 7 kapal atau tongkang purba di kawasan ekskavasi Sungai Batu, Kedah.  Ini menunjukkan bahawa industri peleburan besi juga pernah dijalankan secara aktif di Kedah Tua. Walaubagaimanapun, pihak PPAG USM tidak menemukan apa-apa bukti berkenaan produk akhir di Sungai Batu tersebut. 

Menurut kajian Ramachandran, TN (1954), campuran logam bagi patung Buddha di Nagapattinam sekitar abad ke-9 hingga ke-13 adalah paling unik. Beliau mengatakan seperti berikut:-

"The finest example of bronzes, however, were made during the Chola period in the South India, between the 9th and 13th century AD. The majority of South Indian metal images are made of copper with a small admixture of alloy and are therefore not "bronze". According to the Silpa Sastrás and tradition they should be made of pancháloha, an alloy of 5 metals (copper, silver, gold, tin and lead)."

Menurut Ramachandran lagi, cara membuat acuan dan melebur logam era kegemilangan Chola tersebut juga adalah berlainan iaitu mengikut cara yang dibuat oleh tukang besi dari Cina dan Yunani di mana cara yang digelar proses "lost wax" digunakan. Cara "lost wax" tersebut dihuraikan seperti berikut:-

"The subject was first modelled, in wax, then coated with clay. Next the wax was melted out leaving the mould behind into which liquid metal was poured to cast a solid image. But if a hollow image was intended, the subject would be first modelled in clay an then the core was coated with wax, and the wax in turn covered with a negative clay. This was used for casting after the wax was drained out by heating. With the former single method have been produced the masterpieces of South Indian bronzes".

Setelah merujuk silang rekod India, Belanda dan Amerika Syarikat, saya berpendapat kemungkinan besar 350 patung tembaga yang ditemui sekitar Nagapattinam dan kuil Chudamani Vihara tersebut adalah diperbuat dari logam-logam campuran dari Kedah Tua. Berdasarkan lokasi penemuan dan catatan yang ada, saya percaya patung Buddha tembaga yang kini berada di New York adalah hadiah dari perutusan yang mewakili 18 negeri dalam kedatuan Srivijaya pada tahun 1091. 

Arahan yang dikeluarkan Rajaraja Chola I berkenaan kebenaran menduduki dan membina kuil kepada raja Melayu dan pengikutnya membuktikan bahawa kepakaran mereka adalah diperlukan dalam proses penghasilan barangan atau produk akhir. Berdasarkan fungsi kuil, penempatan sekitar, penghormatan yang diberikan, dan juga pertalian perdagangan yang wujud, kemungkinan besar hasil logam dari Kedah Tua telah didagangkan di bandar pelabuhan Nagapattinam di India Selatan secara besar-besaran. Selain dari mengekstrak dan melebur logam, dengan kemahiran navigasi dan infrastruktur pelayaran yang ada, Kedah Tua juga sememangnya berpotensi menghantar pandai besi mereka ke negeri pelanggan. Aktiviti pedagang dan pandai besi Melayu di Chola khususnya mungkin termasuk pembinaan acuan (mold making) dan kerja-kerja mencairkan logam dari jongkong-jongkong yang dibawa bagi membentuk produk akhir menurut spesifikasi yang diperlukan.

Berbalik kepada misteri keris dan identiti disebalik patung dalam lukisan Belanda tersebut, tiada maklumat yang dapat saya ketengahkan kecuali andaian semata-mata. Memandangkan ianya dibina diperkarangan kuil yang didirikan raja Melayu dinasti Sailendra atas naungan Rajaraja Chola I, maka kemungkinan besar ia dibina bagi menghormati dan mengagungkan penaungnya. Keris pula mungkin melambangkan peranan raja Melayu dan pengikutnya dalam menyediakan bekalan besi dan logam lain bagi infrastruktur dan kelengkapan senjata dan perisai tentera Rajaraja Chola I. Manakala kepala-kepala yang dipijak dan dipegang patung tersebut melambangkan musuh-musuh yang berjaya ditewaskan dan tumbang ditangan Rajaraja Chola I.

Rujukan:

1. Asia Society Museum, New York.
2. Chola Invasion of Srivijaya. Wikipedia. Diekstrak dari https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_invasion_of_Srivijaya
3. Chudamani Vihara. Wikipedia. Diekstrak dari https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chudamani_Vihara
4. Leiden University Library, Amsterdam.
5. Maravijayottunggavarman. Wikipedia. Diekstrak dari https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maravijayottunggavarman
6. Mokthar, N.A.M., Mokhtar, S., Abdullah, J., The Ancient Iron Smelting In Sg. Batu, Bujang Valley, Kedah. January 2011, Conference: Postgraduate Student Forum: Current Asian Anthropology.
7. Muzium Negara Malaysia.
8. Nagapattinam – The last citadel of Buddhism in South India. 28 Mei 2019. Way of Bodhi. Diekstrak dari https://www.wayofbodhi.org/buddhism-in-nagapattinam-tamil-nadu/
9. Rahsia Sungai Batu Yang Belum Terungkai, 15 Julai 2016, The Star, diekstrak dari https://www.mstar.com.my/lain-lain/rencana/2016/07/15/rahsia-sungai-batu
10. Raksasa Laut Nusantara. 17 April 2020. History Buff. Diekstrak dari https://yusrinfaidz.blogspot.com/2020/04/raksasa-laut-nusantara.html
11. Ramachandran, TN. 1954. The Nagapattinam and other Buddhist Bronzes in the Chennai Museum.
12. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
13. Sri Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman, Wikipedia. Diekstrak dari https://ms.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Sangrama_Vijayatunggavarman
14. Sri Chulamanivarman. Wikipedia. Diekstrak dari https://ms.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Chulamanivarman
15. Sri Deva, Wikipedia. Diekstrak dari https://ms.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Deva
16. Treloar F.E. & Fabris G.J. (1975). Evidence for the Contemporary Existence of Two Kedah Sites. JAMBRAS Vol. 48, No. 1 (227) (1975), pp. 74-77.

The Mystery of Labuan Chimney

Picture 1: Labuan Chimney
Source: holidaygogogo.com

The recent appearance of a series of monoliths in remote areas captured the public's imagination. Theories about who made the monolith and how it got there naturally came pouring in.  The same air of speculation could have been experienced by seafarers upon their arrival in Labuan more than a century ago. In 1915, 'Asiatic Pilot' published by the United States Hydrographic Office, reported the sighting of a "conspicuous chimney" that existed between the beacon at Bethune Head (Tanjong Kubong / Coal Point) and Raffles Anchorage (Picture 1).  This rectangular-shape 32 meter structure is constructed entirely out of red bricks.  In terms of design, this out-of-place artifact is typical of a chimney, but came with two arch-shaped inlet instead of the usual single inlet.  

The connection with numbers 2 & 3 does not end there. Mathematically the number of bricks used to build this chimney i.e. 23,000 is exactly 1% of the number of stones used to build the Great Pyramid of Khufu (2.3m stones). 23 is also the number of the Grand Masters of the Knights Templar. It was also the tallest man made structure on the island for about 150 years until it was overtaken by the 40 meter Labuan Corporation Tower.

 

Various suggestions were forwarded on the actual function and purpose of this chimney. The first theory is that it was a ventilation shaft related to either smelting, coal mining, or brick making activity. Nevertheless, upon further examination, the inner walls of this structure showed no trace of smoke or creosote.  Further, there are no remnants of a klin, tunnel, or main heating structure to which the chimney is supposedly attached to. 

The second theory suggests that it was installed for signalling purposes, i.e. either a lighthouse or a beacon tower, to guide ships to Victoria Harbour located at the southern side of Labuan island. I believe that the second theory makes more sense as the structure is located near Raffles Anchorage which served as a coaling station for steamships between 1847 to 1870s. I also believe that the four vertical lines at each side of the top of the structure represents the four lines in nautical flag signalling which indicates the existence of a port. (Picture 2).

Picture 2: Nautical ensign on top of Labuan Chimney indicating existence of a port.

Further, Labuan is situated at the north portion of the mouth of Brunei Bay wherein maritime traffic from the north of the bay could be effectively monitored. Based on its vantage point, I believe that the structure functioned as an observation deck, from which information about incoming ships could be broadcasted to Victoria Harbour and Labuan town using an optical telegraph system known as semaphore. 

At the end of the Napoleonic wars (1803-1815), optical telegraphy known semaphore signalling system (Picture 3 & 4) replaced the older version known as Murray Shutters (Picture 5).  Such signalling mechanism required lesser space and could easily be mounted on a tower.

Picture 3: Semaphore tower in the UK
Source: bidstonlighthouse.org.uk

Picture 4: Semaphore signalling system.
Source: Wikiwand.

Picture 5: Model of Murray Shutter at Portsmouth, Southsea Common.
Source: National Museum of the Royal Navy

Although semaphore towers for inland communication were extensively used in England (Picture 3) as well as British India (Picture 6), none was documented in their colonies and protectorates in Southeast Asia. 

Picture 6: Red-brick semaphore tower in Kamarkundu, India.
Source: livehistoryindia.com

Instead, in Penang, for example, the British continued to use Murray Shutters for communication between Bell Retiro (Bukit Bendera) and Fort Cornwallis, as well as between Fort Cornwallis and incoming vessels.  Photographs taken of Bell Retiro and Fort Cornwallis circa 1860s shows that Murray Shutters remained in Penang despite being replaced elsewhere in the colonies (Picture 7 & 8). In fact, the British in Penang further developed their Murray Shutters based on Colonel Macdonald's upgrade by adding more shutters, i.e. from the original 6-shutter to a 12-shutter system. With more shutters, the Penang version would have been able to convey a more complex combination of codes and signals.  

Picture 7: Photograph by Émile Gsell (1836-1879) titled "Habitation du Gouvernaur de Poulo Pinang" i.e. House of the Governor of Pulau Pinang c. 1866 prior to its 1870 renovation. 
Source: Leiden University Library, Amsterdam.

Picture 8: Maritime Flagstaff and sideview of the Murray Shutter at Fort Cornwallis, c. 1860s.
Source: Gutenberg.org

I believe optical telegraphy existed much earlier in the region. Sulalatus Salatin (Malay Annals), for example, refers to an earlier form of optical telegraphy practiced by the 15th century kingdoms of the Malay archipelago through the use of a variety of military ensigns and contraptions known as "tunggul", "panji-panji", "merawal", and "ambul-ambul". The only recorded proof of such practice can be seen in a 1568 Portuguese drawing of the siege of Malacca by Acehnese forces which shows the use of 'merawal' (elongated/pennon flag) on a three tier structure within the Acehnese fort. The system enabled the Sultan Aceh, Sultan Alauddin Ri'ayat Syah al-Kahar (r.1537-1571) to give strategic military instructions all the way from São Francisco (Bukit Cina). (Picture 9).

Picture 9: 'Siege of Malacca 1568' 
Source: National Library of Brazil.

The use of optical telegraphy and thus semaphore towers came to an abrupt end with the introduction of electrical telegraphy in mid 19th century.  Similar fate befell the semaphore tower of Labuan upon the implementation of electrical telegraphy in the region around 1870s to 1880s. Further, by the 1870s, Raffles Anchorage, which was exposed to swells of the north-east monsoon, was no longer used as a coaling station for ships. Instead, coal raised from the mines at Tanjong Kubong were transported to Victoria Harbour by rail. Shipowners and charterers also preferred to berth at Victoria Harbour as it is located on a natural deep-water bay and sheltered from typhoons. 

By 1880s, visitors to the island believed that the semaphore tower of Labuan was part of the facilities left by the abandoned coal industry. Frank Hatton (1861-1883) who visited Tanjong Kubong in October 1881 took several photographs of the surrounding area (Picture 10) and wrote to his father as follows:-

"The other day Lempriere, Everett (of Sarawak), and I went up to Coal Point - a famous place in Labuan - to shoot.  There is a deserted coal-mine there, upon  which thousands of pounds have been spent; and jungle is now growing all over most valuable machines, railways, and other gear; it is a very melancholy thing to see.  I will send you some photographs of it in my next letter. I am writing a sketch which I will post by next mail, entitled "Bungalow Life in Labuan. This life is very pleasant as regards sea-bathing, shooting, riding, and eating."

Picture 10: "Tanjong Kubong, or Coal Point, Labuan" based on a photograph taken by Frank Hatton c. October 1881.

22 year-old Hatton died in a tragic elephant-shooting incident at Kinabatangan on 1.3.1883, wherein none of his photographs of Tanjong Kubong surfaced except for the one posted to his father in his subsequent letter dated 2.11.1881 (Picture 10). 

A possible explanation as to why there is no official documentation pertaining Labuan Chimney's construction could be due to the fact that it was not built by the Royal Navy.  Instead it was probably constructed privately by a notable Freemason, James Brooke, who was at the material time, trying to promote the island to the British in a quid pro quo deal for their continuous military support. After the acquisition from the Sultanate of Brunei in 1846, James Brooke presented Labuan to the British. In return, he was appointed Governor and Commander-in-chief of Labuan in 1848.  Thus, I believe that the actual function of Labuan Chimney was to relay signals and messages via optical telegraphy to Victoria Harbour as well as to communicate with incoming ships. Perhaps due to its proximity to the abandoned coal-mine, it was mistakenly presumed to be part of its infrastructure. 

References:

1. Asiatic Pilot, 1915, Vol. V, 1st Edition, United States Hydrographic Office.
2. Bidston Lighthouse. Retrieved from: http://www.bidstonlighthouse.org.uk/tag/semaphore/
3. China Sea Directory Vol 2, 2nd ed, (1879),
4. Gupta, M. (2019, March 24). Mysterious Towers: Relics of the Visual Telegraph. Live History of India. Retrieved form: https://www.livehistoryindia.com/cover-story/2019/03/24/mysterious-towers-relics-of-the-visual-telegraph
5. Hatton, F., (1886). North Borneo. Exploration and Adventures on the Equator. London: Samson Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington.
6. Maritime Flag Signalling, Wikipedia, Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_flag_signalling
7. McNair, J.F.A. & Bayliss, W. D. (2008). Prisoners Their Own Warders. E-book retrieved from: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/26974/26974-h/26974-h.htm 
8. Optical Telegraph, Wikipedia, Retrieved from: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Optical_telegraph
9. Pengepungan Melaka 1568, https://yusrinfaidz.blogspot.com/2020/04/pengepungan-melaka-1568.html
10. Silver, L. (2015, November 02), Unlocking the Labuan Chimney mystery. Daily Express. Retrieved from: http://www.dailyexpress.com.my/read.cfm?NewsID=1766