Keris tertua di England?

Gambar 1: Cotehele House di Cornwall, England.
Sumber: Pinterest.

Kebanyakan keris dalam koleksi istana dan muzium di England adalah keris-keris Nusantara yang diperbuat sekitar abad ke-18 dan ke-19.  Akan tetapi, terdapat 4 bilah keris Nusantara yang berada di Cotehele House yang mungkin telah tiba lebih awal di England (Gambar 2-5).

Gambar 2

Gambar 3

Gambar 4

Gambar 5

3 darinya dipamirkan di bahagian dinding belakang tahta dalam ruang utama di Cotehele House. Kerusi tahta tersebut dikatakan diperbuat sekitar tahun 1627 (Gambar 6).

Gambar 6: Imej Cotehele House dari Youtube : Fly'n Brian https://youtu.be/Wl7vJfy45fY 

 

Cotehele House (Gambar 1) adalah sebuah rumah agam yang terletak di Cornwall, England. Rumah tersebut dibina oleh keluarga Edgcumbe sekitar 1490-an setelah merobohkan rumah asal yang wujud di situ.  Tanah seluas 885 ekar di Cornwall tersebut dimiliki keluarga Edgcumbe semenjak tahun 1353. Sebahagian dari kawasan tanah di Edgcumbe tersebut telah dihadiahkan oleh Henry Tudor (Henry VII) (1457-1509) kepada Sir Richard Edgcumbe I (1443-1489) atas khidmat dan sokongan yang diberi oleh beliau kepada House of Lancaster semasa Perang Mawar (War of the Roses) dan Pertempuran Padang Bosworth (Battle of Bosworth Field) pada tahun 1485 (Gambar 7). Dalam pertempuran bersejarah 1485 tersebut King Richard III dari House of York berjaya dikalahkan, di mana Henry VII dari House of Lancaster telah ditabalkan sebagai raja England yang baru. Peristiwa ini menandakan permulaan pemerintahan raja-raja Tudor Inggeris dari 1485 hingga 1603.

Gambar 7: Pertempuran Padang Bosworth (1485), seperti yang digambarkan oleh Philip James de Loutherbourg (1740–1812).

Keluarga Edgcumbe tersebut masih wujud sehingga kini. Walaubagaimanapun sekitar abad ke-17 mereka telah menetap sepenuhnya di Mount Edgcumbe House yang dibina pada tahun 1553. Pemilik terakhir Cotehele House, Kenelm Edgcumbe (Earl Mount Edgcumbe ke-6) (1873-1965), telah menyerahkan Cotehele House bersama-sama koleksi senjata dan perisai zaman pertengahan kepada pihak kerajaan pada tahun 1947.  

Cotehele House kini adalah antara rumah agam dibawah jagaan National Trust yang paling asli keadaannya dari segi struktur arkitektur dan hiasan dalaman. Sehingga kini ianya berterusan tidak dipasang tenaga elektrik demi untuk mengekalkan keadaan dan suasana sebenar bangunan tersebut setakat ianya ditinggalkan keluarga Edgcumbe pada abad ke-17.

Berbalik kepada koleksi keris keluarga Edgcumbe, tiada maklumat tentang bila dan bagaimana keris-keris tersebut boleh berada di situ. Jika dikaji, terdapat 4 tempoh waktu keris-keris ini mungkin tiba di Edgcumbe.

Pertama, sekitar 1555 pewaris Edgcumbe iaitu Sir Richard Edgcumbe II (1499-1562) menjadikan rumah-rumah agam di Edgcumbe sebagai tempat persinggahan dan melayan tetamu yang terdiri dari tentera laut pelbagai negara di Eropah termasuk laksamana-laksamana dari Semenanjung Iberia. Sebagai contoh pengembara Scotland-Perancis bernama Jean Rotz yang pernah belayar ke Nusantara sekitar 1529 pernah berkhidmat dengan tentera Raja Henry VIII pada tahun 1542. Terdapat kemungkinan keris-keris ini adalah hadiah dari pelayar-pelayar yang telah menerokai perjalanan laut ke Nusantara ketika itu.

Kedua, ianya mungkin tiba selepas kembalinya ekspedisi terawal Inggeris ke Nusantara.  Ekspedisi pihak Inggeris ke Nusantara dimulakan oleh Sir James Lancaster (1554-1618) pada tahun 1591 dengan kapal Edward Bonaventure. Pada Jun 1592, Lancaster tiba di Pulau Pinang dan menjalankan aktiviti pelanunan di situ sehingga September 1593. Beliau pulang ke England pada tahun 1594. Lancaster ke Nusantara buat kali kedua pada tahun 1601 dengan kapal Red Dragon. Kali ini misinya adalah sebagai wakil Syarikat Hindia Timur Inggeris atas dasar ekspedisi perdagangan ke Bentan, Aceh dan Maluku. Keris-keris tersebut mungkin telah dihadiahkan oleh Lancaster kepada keluarga Edgcumbe setelah tamat salah satu dari pelayaran awal Inggeris ini.

Ketiga, menurut catatan sebuah majalah sejarah tahun 1833, senjata dan perisai yang berada di ruang utama Cotehele House dicadangkan mungkin wujud sekitar Perang Saudara Inggeris iaitu dari tahun 1642 hingga 1651. Saya petik catatan 1833 tersebut:-

"The interior of the Hall is very interesting. The roof is timber, and arched; and on the walls having various pieces of armour and weapons of considerable antiquity, with complete suit of armour, which, however, is probably not older than the civil wars."

Keempat, ianya mungkin diperoleh melalui usaha ahli keluarga Edgcumbe sendiri. Apabila kita teliti susur-galur keluarga Edgcumbe, terdapat dua ahli keluarga yang berkait rapat dengan aktiviti pelayaran dan mungkin bertanggungjawab dalam mengumpul keris-keris tersebut. Richard Edgcumbe IV, (Baron Edgcumbe Ke-2) (1716-1761) pernah dilantik sebagai Lord of the Admiralty. Akan tetapi tempoh beliau memegang jawatan tersebut agak singkat. Selain peranan pentadbiran di London, beliau tidak pernah menyertai mana-mana ekspedisi pelayaran. Admiral George Edgcumbe, (Earl Mount Edgecumbe Pertama) (1720-1795) pula pernah berkhidmat dengan Royal Navy dari 1739 hingga 1778. Akan tetapi, misi pelayarannya di Western Fleet hanya terhad di Selat Inggeris, Lautan Mediterranean dan juga sekitar Amerika Utara sahaja. Ia tidak melibatkan pelayaran ke Nusantara.

Memandangkan keadaan Cotehele House tidak diubah selepas keluarga Edgcumbe berpindah ke Mount Edgcumbe House pada abad ke-17, kemungkinan besar keris-keris ini adalah antara koleksi yang diterima sebagai hadiah oleh keluarga Edgcumbe sekitar abad ke-16 hingga ke-17. Walaubagaimanapun, ianya hanyalah suatu andaian yang hanya boleh dirungkai melalui pentarikhan radiokarbon terhadap bahagian organik pada keris-keris tersebut.

Rujukan:

1. Cotehele House. Britain Express. Diekstrak dari https://www.britainexpress.com/counties/cornwall/houses/cotehele.htm
2. Fuller, T. 1840. The Stories of the Worthies of England.
3. James Lancaster. Wikipedia. Diekstrak dari https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lancaster
4. Lysons, D. & Lysons, S. 1814. Magna Britannia: Being a Concise Topographical Account of the Several Counties of Great Britain. Volume 3. London.
5. Mount Edgcumbe House. Wikipedia. Diekstrak dari https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Edgcumbe_House
6. The Gentleman's Magazine & Historical Chronicle (July-December 1833), Volume 13, Part 2 , Page 19, Nichols & Sons, London.
7. Worth, R.N. 1883. Tourist's Guide to South Devon: Rail, Road, River, Coast and Moor. 3rd Ed., Edward Stanford, London.

Bukit Bendera - The Hill With Many Names

 

Picture 1: 1874 Admiralty Map of Penang, based on surveys conducted in 1832, 1856 & 1867. 
Source: Georaphicus Rare & Antique Maps.

Penang Hill is also known as Bukit Bendera, literally "Flag Hill" in Malay.  The Malay name actually refers to Flagstaff Hill, the most developed peak in Penang Hill. In terms of toponymy, Flagstaff Hill was named in reference to the flagstaff outside the residence of the Governor.  The said residence was built by Francis Light in 1789, wherein surveys conducted as early as 1832 shows that the hill was known as Bell Retiro (Picture 1).  

From the archives, nautical instruments were placed at Bell Retiro.  Marine chronometers sold by J.S Leisk & Co to shipowners in Penang around 1848 had Greenwich Meantime calibrated and synchronized with reference to the coordinates of the hill's flagstaff. Archives also show that other known names of the hill includes Government Hill, Signal Hill, as well as Great Hill. 

Based on an 1866 photograph by Émile Gsell (1836-1879), we can see that the structure adjacent to the Governor's residence was not any ordinary flagstaff (Picture 2). Combined with an observation deck and a shutter tower to its left, this maritime flagstaff forms a visual signalling system which is also known as optical telegraph. Gsell was hired by the Commission d'exploration du Mékong (Mekong Exploration Commission) directed by Ernest Doudart de Lagrée (1823-1868), to photograph the ruins of Angkor. Gsell accompanied the expedition to Cambodia and Siam from June to October 1866, wherein several photographs were taken during their stopover in Penang. Following the 1866 expedition, Gsell established himself as a commercial photographer, becoming the first professional photographer to do so in Saigon.

Picture 2: Photograph by Émile Gsell (1836-1879) titled "Habitation du Gouvernaur de Poulo Pinang" i.e. House of the Governor of Pulau Pinang c. 1866 prior to its 1870 renovation. 
Source: Leiden University Library, Amsterdam.

Before the invention of wireless telegraphy, signalling using flags and shutters from signal stations were used to transmit messages between distant points.  Similar maritime flagstaff was installed by the British in Malacca atop St. Paul's Hill (St. Pauli Berg / Bukit Melaka) (Pictures 3 & 4).  In fact St. Paul's Hill was temporarily known as Bukit Bendera around early 19th century.

Picture 3: 
'View of the Church of the Visitation of Our Lady on the Summit of St. Paul's Hill" by Begbie, P. J. c. 1834
Source: The Malayan Peninsula, Embracing its History, Manners and Customs of the Inhabitants, Politics, Natural History &c. From its Earliest Records.' by Begbie, P. J., 1834.

Picture 4: Painting of St. Paul's Hill by Barthélémy Lauvergne c. 1837

Based on a 1764 painting of Malacca by Jan Keldermans, the Dutch had their maritime flagstaff constructed nearer to the coastal bastions (Picture 5).

Picture 5: "Aanzicht Malakka" (View of Malacca) by Jan Keldermans, 1764, which shows that Dutch Malacca had its maritime flagstaff installed near one of the bastions.
Source: Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

The Anglo-Dutch naval wars of the 17th century provided considerable impetus on both sides for more elaborate signals culminating in the Royal Navy's Permanent Fighting Instructions created by the then-Duke of York (subsequently James II). In 1799, Sir Home Riggs Popham published his first list of words and sentences which could be referenced by a number (or "code"); three subsequent editions added letter flags, with the 1801 edition numbering 2994 codes. Sir Home Riggs Popham was also responsible for the earliest map of Penang town (Picture 6).

Picture 6: The 1799 Map of Penang Showing the Malay Town on the South of the Town Center by Sir Home Riggs Popham. Source: Wikipedia.

The first general system of signaling for merchant vessels was Captain Frederick Marryat's "A Code of Signals for the Merchant Service" published in 1817. (Picture 7).

Picture 7: Captain Frederick Marryat's Signal Flag Code
Source: Modelshipworld.com

Around the same time, the local Malays is believed to have practiced similar flag signalling system.  For example, Selangor under Sultan Ibrahim Shah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Salehuddin Shah (r. 1778-1826) inherited a flag signalling system from the Johor-Riau kingdom which was influenced by the banners of the Ottoman Empire. Sultan Ibrahim Shah, a Buginese prince, joined forces with his uncle, Raja Haji Fisabilillah ibni Daeng Chelak (1727–1784), in the Bugis attack of Dutch Malacca in 1784 and helped Perak defeat Siamese invasion. The Dutch retaliated and captured the fortress near Malawati Hill during the 1784 Battle of Selangor wherein several signal flags were confiscated at the hill fort (Kota Malawati).  Charts containing the illustration of these flags were drawn by Engel Hoogerheyden which is now kept at the Maritime Museum of Amsterdam (Pictures 8 & 9).  In Malay, "Malawati" or "Melawati" means reconnaissance tower located on a high ground.  As such it is believed that the hill fort got its name from the reconnaissance and signal tower constructed within its compound.  

Picture 8: Flag Chart of Engel Hoogerheyden, showing the flags captured at the Battle of Selangor, 1784.

Source: Maritime Museum Amsterdam.

Picture 9: Two banners belonging to the Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Selangor (Sultan Ibrahim Shah) and the Yang di-Pertuan Muda of Johor-Riau (Raja Haji Fisabillilah) captured at the Battle of Selangor, 1784.
Source: Maritime Museum Amsterdam. 

As to shutter towers, such machines were essentially vertical wooden frames with shutters within them. The shutter system in general was designed by Reverend Lord George Murray around 1796 and named 'Murray Shutter'. To make a signal, the shutters were opened and closed in order to spell out different letters. The first system of Murray Shutters were constructed around March 1796 and known as the Portsmouth Shutter Telegraph line which enabled communication between the Admiralty building in London and Portsmouth (See Picture 10).

Picture 10: View of the Telegraph erected on the Admiralty Office, Charing Cross in 1796.
Source: National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.

The message was passed through several Signal Stations including Putney, Chessington, Haslemere, Bedhampton, and ended next to the King’s Bastion, Portsmouth (Picture 11). Soldiers at the stations would watch through telescopes and take down the message, then pass it on by pulling ropes attached to the back of the shutters to spell it out. This line could send important messages from the Royal Naval base in Portsmouth to London in 7.5 minutes, far quicker than any other method of communication at the time.  Soon after it was built, another row was added to make it a 9-shutter system, and just when all the operators were getting used to the new possible coding permutations, then came an additional single shutter on top. Experiments were also made with lanterns for night use of the shutters, but were conspicuously unsuccessful. 

Picture 11: Model of Murray Shutter at Portsmouth, Southsea Common.
Source: National Museum of the Royal Navy

In the case of Bukit Bendera of Penang, the flagstaff and shutter tower were utilized to relay strategic military communication from Bukit Bendera to Fort Cornwallis, which had a corresponding signaling system (Picture 12). 

Picture 12: Maritime Flagstaff and sideview of the Murray Shutter at Fort Cornwallis, c. 1860s.
Source: Gutenberg.org

Nevertheless, unlike the European version, the Murray Shutters of Penang were different as it utilized 12 shutters. As Murray Shutters were generally scrapped after the Napoleonic wars (1803-1815), it is believed that the 1866 photograph by Gsell (Picture 2) shows that such system was subjected to further improvement in Penang. With more shutters, the Penang version would have been able to convey a more complex combination of codes and signals. As the shutter operators were referred to as "bell ringers" (as they had to "pull together" the shutters to make code), it is possible that the name "Bell Retiro" originated from the function of the hill, i.e. as accommodation for the bell ringers. This is so as the British had to man their signal station throughout the year. The current name of Bel Retiro (Beautiful/Fair Retreat) could be a corruption of its original name Bell Retiro.

Therefore, it may be argued that Bukit Bendera has long been used for observation and communication purposes. Perhaps longer than its role as a retreat for the British colonists. Here, signalmen a.k.a. 'bell ringers' surveyed the ocean for ships headed into Penang harbour, years before the advent of wireless and ship-to-shore radio. From the signal station atop the hill, flags and shutters conveyed information on approaching vessels to military and mercantile interests in Penang. Merchants then had plenty of time to prepare their docks for incoming vessels. It was equally useful in wartime for observing enemy movements and attacks. Signals could be issued to give instructions as to the best defence formation for the navy to counter enemy ships.  

With the end of the First World War in November 1918, the British discontinued the use of the signal station at Bukit Bendera. This ended a service which existed for almost a century. It was replaced with the wireless installation at Penaga and the station at Muka Head. As it is with the toponym of Bukit Malawati of Kuala Selangor, and Bukit Bendera of Malacca, the existence of a signal station on its grounds became the origin of the many names of Bukit Bendera of Penang.

Sources:

1. Aiken, R.S. (1987). Early Penang Hill Station, Geographical Review, Vol. 77, No. 4 (Oct., 1987), pp. 421-439 (19 pages).

2. Leiden University Library, Amsterdam.

3. Malawati, Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka http://prpm.dbp.gov.my/cari1?keyword=melawati

4. Maritime Flag Signalling, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_flag_signalling

5. McNair, J.F.A. & Bayliss, W. D. (2008). Prisoners Their Own Warders. E-book at

https://www.gutenberg.org/files/26974/26974-h/26974-h.htm

6. Mekong Expedition 1866-1868 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mekong_expedition_of_1866%E2%80%931868

7. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.

8. National Museum of the Royal Navy.

9. Optical Telegraph, Wikipedia, https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Optical_telegraph